Sex estimation based on tooth measurements using panoramic radiographs with classical and machine-learning classifiers
,
Abstract
Objectives: This study assessed sex estimation of Iranians according to maxillary left first molar measurements made on panoramic radiographs using classical and machine-learning classifiers.
Materials and Methods: In this cross-sectional study, tooth length- and width-related variables were calculated for maxillary left first molars on 131 panoramic radiographs (65 males, 66 females; age range of 18-30 years). A subsample of the radiographs was selected and reevaluated by two examiners after 1 month. The intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) was calculated to assess reliability. The regularized discriminant analysis (RDA), support vector machine (SVM), and cascade-forward and feed-forward neural network models were used for sex estimation. Comparisons were made with the Mann-Whitney and t tests.
Results: The intra-observer reliability was 0.9. SVM had the best performance on the test data in both classification schemes. The crown length at the cementoenamel junction (CEJL) and total crown length (CL) in the classification scheme I (sex estimation based on length and width variables), and CEJL/root length (RL), cementoenamel junction width (CEJW)/CEJL, and RL/total tooth length (TTL) in the classification scheme II (sex estimation based on the ratio of variables) were important variables for sex estimation determined by the SVM model. The CEJL had the highest discriminative potential with an area under the curve (AUC) of 78.8. The ratio of variables did not substantially improve sex estimation compared with single variables.
Conclusion: CEJL is a reliable measure for sex estimation in Iranians with values higher than 6.25 indicating the male sex and other values indicating the female sex.
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15. Zorba E, Moraitis K, Eliopoulos C, Spiliopoulou C. Sex determination in modern Greeks using diagonal measurements of molar teeth. Forensic Sci Int. 2012 Apr;217(1-3):19-26.
16. Viciano J, López‐Lázaro S, Alemán I. Sex estimation based on deciduous and permanent dentition in a contemporary Spanish population. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2013 Sep;152(1):31-43.
17. Zorba E, Moraitis K, Manolis SK. Sexual dimorphism in permanent teeth of modern Greeks. Forensic Sci Int. 2011 Jul;210(1-3):74-81.
18. Peckmann TR, Meek S, Dilkie N, Mussett M. Sex estimation using diagonal diameter measurements of molar teeth in African American populations. J Forensic Leg Med. 2015 Nov; 36:70-80.
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21. Rao NG, Rao NN, Pai ML, Kotian MS. Mandibular canine index—a clue for establishing sex identity. Forensic Sci Int. 1989 Aug;42(3):249-54.
22. Grewal DS, Khangura RK, Sircar K, Tyagi KK, Kaur G, David S. Morphometric analysis of odontometric parameters for gender determination. J Clin Diagn Res. 2017 Aug;11(8):ZC09–13.
23. Joseph AP, Harish RK, Mohammed PKR, Vinod Kumar RB. How reliable is sex differentiation from teeth measurements. Oral Maxillofac Pathol J. 2013 Jun;4(1):289-92.
24. Arsiwala-Scheppach LT, Chaurasia A, Müller A, Krois J, Schwendicke F. Machine learning in dentistry: A scoping review. J Clin Med. 2023 Jan;12(3):937.
25. Yu W, Liu T, Valdez R, Gwinn M, Khoury MJ. Application of support vector machine modeling for prediction of common diseases: the case of diabetes and pre-diabetes. BMC Med Inform Decis Mak. 2010 Mar;10(1):1-7
26. Agrawal A, Manjunatha BS, Dholia B, Althomali Y. Comparison of sexual dimorphism of permanent mandibular canine with mandibular first molar by odontometrics. J Forensic Dent Sci. 2015 Sep-Dec;7(3):238-43.
27. Parikh N, Vyas Z, Nandini C, Jha M, Joshi H, Mansata A. Applicability of dimorphism in canines for gender determination. J Res Adv Dent. 2013;2(2):29-36.
28. Shireen A, Ara SA. Odontometric analysis of permanent maxillary first molar in gender determination. J Forensic Dent Sci. 2016 Sep-Dec;8(3):145-9.
29. Ortiz AG, Costa C, Silva RHA, Biazevic MGH, Michel-Crosato E. Sex estimation: Anatomical references on panoramic radiographs using machine learning. Forensic Imaging. 2020 Mar; 20:200356.
30. Capitaneanu C, Willems G, Jacobs R, Fieuws S, Thevissen P. Sex estimation based on tooth measurements using panoramic radiographs. Int J Legal Med. 2017 May;131(3):813-21.
31. Kassambara A. Machine learning essentials: Practical guide in R. Sthda; 2018 Mar:129-35.
32. Yu H, Kim S. SVM tutorial-classification, regression and ranking. In: Rozenberg G, Bäck T, Kok JN (eds). Handbook of Natural Computing. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg; 2012;1:479-506.
33. Aditya S, Tibarewala D. Comparing ANN, LDA, QDA, KNN and SVM algorithms in classifying relaxed and stressful mental state from two-channel prefrontal EEG data. Int J Artif Intell Soft Comput. 2012 Sep;3(2):143-64.
34. Farzin M, Giti R, Heidari E. Age-related changes in tooth dimensions in adults in Shiraz, Iran. J Int Oral Health. 2020 Mar;12(7):S24-9.
35. Ghodoosy A, Ghafari R, Alizadeh N. Determination of sexual dimorphism from maxillary premolars thickness in bitewing radiography. J Dent. 2008 Sep;9(3):213-21.
36. Mackinejad SA, Kaviani R, Rakhshan V, Khabir F. Assessment of the cut-off point of mesiodistal and buccolingual widths of permanent teeth for determination of sex. J Isfahan Dent Sch. 2015;11(2):151-60.
37. Capitaneanu C, Willems G, Thevissen P. A systematic review of odontological sex estimation methods. J Forensic Odontostomatol. 2017 Dec;35(2):1-19.
38. Akkoç B, Arslan A, Kök H. Gray level co-occurrence and random forest algorithm-based gender determination with maxillary tooth plaster images. Comput Biol Med. 2016 Jun; 73:102-7.
39. Avuçlu E, Başçiftçi F. Novel approaches to determine age and gender from dental x-ray images by using multiplayer perceptron neural networks and image processing techniques. Chaos Solit. 2019 Mar;120:127-38.
40. Wei P, Lu Z, Song J. Variable importance analysis: a comprehensive review. Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf. 2015 Oct;142:399-432.
2. Eboh DEO. A dimorphic study of maxillary first molar crown dimensions of Urhobos in Abraka, South-Southern Nigeria. J. Morphol. Sci. 2012 Jan;29(2):96-100.
3. Khangura RK, Sircar K, Singh S, Rastogi V. Sex determination using mesiodistal dimension of permanent maxillary incisors and canines. J Forensic Dent Sci. 2011 Jul;3(2):81-5.
4. Parekh DH, Patel SV, Zalawadia AZ, Patel SM. Odontometric study of maxillary canine teeth to establish sexual dimorphism in Gujarat population. Int J Biol Med Res. 2012 May;3(3):1935-7.
5. Angadi PV, Hemani S, Prabhu S, Acharya AB. Analyses of odontometric sexual dimorphism and sex assessment accuracy on a large sample. J Forensic Leg Med. 2013 Aug;20(6):673-7.
6. Brook AH, Griffin RC, Townsend G, Levisianos Y, Russell J, Smith RN. Variability and patterning in permanent tooth size of four human ethnic groups. Arch Oral Biol. 2009 Dec;54(1):S79-85.
7. da Costa YTF, Lima LNC, Rabello PM. Analysis of canine dimorphism in the estimation of sex. Braz. J. Oral Sci. 2015 Oct;11(3):406-10.
8. Filipović G, Radojičić J, Stošić M, Janošević P, Ajduković Z. Odontometric analysis of permanent canines in gender determination. Arch. Biol. Sci. 2013;65(4):1279-83.
9. Lakhanpal M, Gupta N, Rao NC, Vashisth S. Tooth dimension variations as a gender determinant in permanent maxillary teeth. JSM Dent. 2013 Sep;1(1):1014.
10. Mitsea AG, Moraitis K, Leon G, Nicopoulou-Karayianni K, Spiliopoulou C. Sex determination by tooth size in a sample of Greek population. Homo. 2014 Aug; 65(4):322-9.
11. Mujib ABR, Tarigoppula RKVN, Kulkarni PG, Bs A. Gender determination using diagonal measurements of maxillary molar and canine teeth in davangere population. J Clin Diagn Res. 2014 Nov; 8(11):ZC141-4.
12. Prabhu S, Acharya AB: Odontometric sex assessment in Indians. Forensic Sci Int. 2009 Nov;192(1-3):129.e1-5.
13. Sabóia TM, Tannure PN, Luiz RR, de Castro Costa M, Granjeiro JM, Küchler EC, et al. Sexual dimorphism involved in the mesiodistal and buccolingual dimensions of permanent teeth. Dentistry 3000. 2013 Nov;1(1):2-6.
14. Shireen A, Ara SA, Azzeghaiby SN, Alzoghaibi I, Tarakji B, Umair A. Sex determination potential from canine tooth dimensions. Br J Med Med Res. 2014 Jul;4(32):5133-43.
15. Zorba E, Moraitis K, Eliopoulos C, Spiliopoulou C. Sex determination in modern Greeks using diagonal measurements of molar teeth. Forensic Sci Int. 2012 Apr;217(1-3):19-26.
16. Viciano J, López‐Lázaro S, Alemán I. Sex estimation based on deciduous and permanent dentition in a contemporary Spanish population. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2013 Sep;152(1):31-43.
17. Zorba E, Moraitis K, Manolis SK. Sexual dimorphism in permanent teeth of modern Greeks. Forensic Sci Int. 2011 Jul;210(1-3):74-81.
18. Peckmann TR, Meek S, Dilkie N, Mussett M. Sex estimation using diagonal diameter measurements of molar teeth in African American populations. J Forensic Leg Med. 2015 Nov; 36:70-80.
19. Rai B, Anand SC. Gender determination by diagonal distances of teeth. Int J Biol Anthropol. 2007 Jun;1(1).
20. Acharya AB, Angadi PV, Prabhu S, Nagnur S. Validity of the mandibular canine index (MCI) in sex prediction: Reassessment in an Indian sample. Forensic Sci Int. 2011 Jan;204(1-3): 207.e1-4.
21. Rao NG, Rao NN, Pai ML, Kotian MS. Mandibular canine index—a clue for establishing sex identity. Forensic Sci Int. 1989 Aug;42(3):249-54.
22. Grewal DS, Khangura RK, Sircar K, Tyagi KK, Kaur G, David S. Morphometric analysis of odontometric parameters for gender determination. J Clin Diagn Res. 2017 Aug;11(8):ZC09–13.
23. Joseph AP, Harish RK, Mohammed PKR, Vinod Kumar RB. How reliable is sex differentiation from teeth measurements. Oral Maxillofac Pathol J. 2013 Jun;4(1):289-92.
24. Arsiwala-Scheppach LT, Chaurasia A, Müller A, Krois J, Schwendicke F. Machine learning in dentistry: A scoping review. J Clin Med. 2023 Jan;12(3):937.
25. Yu W, Liu T, Valdez R, Gwinn M, Khoury MJ. Application of support vector machine modeling for prediction of common diseases: the case of diabetes and pre-diabetes. BMC Med Inform Decis Mak. 2010 Mar;10(1):1-7
26. Agrawal A, Manjunatha BS, Dholia B, Althomali Y. Comparison of sexual dimorphism of permanent mandibular canine with mandibular first molar by odontometrics. J Forensic Dent Sci. 2015 Sep-Dec;7(3):238-43.
27. Parikh N, Vyas Z, Nandini C, Jha M, Joshi H, Mansata A. Applicability of dimorphism in canines for gender determination. J Res Adv Dent. 2013;2(2):29-36.
28. Shireen A, Ara SA. Odontometric analysis of permanent maxillary first molar in gender determination. J Forensic Dent Sci. 2016 Sep-Dec;8(3):145-9.
29. Ortiz AG, Costa C, Silva RHA, Biazevic MGH, Michel-Crosato E. Sex estimation: Anatomical references on panoramic radiographs using machine learning. Forensic Imaging. 2020 Mar; 20:200356.
30. Capitaneanu C, Willems G, Jacobs R, Fieuws S, Thevissen P. Sex estimation based on tooth measurements using panoramic radiographs. Int J Legal Med. 2017 May;131(3):813-21.
31. Kassambara A. Machine learning essentials: Practical guide in R. Sthda; 2018 Mar:129-35.
32. Yu H, Kim S. SVM tutorial-classification, regression and ranking. In: Rozenberg G, Bäck T, Kok JN (eds). Handbook of Natural Computing. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg; 2012;1:479-506.
33. Aditya S, Tibarewala D. Comparing ANN, LDA, QDA, KNN and SVM algorithms in classifying relaxed and stressful mental state from two-channel prefrontal EEG data. Int J Artif Intell Soft Comput. 2012 Sep;3(2):143-64.
34. Farzin M, Giti R, Heidari E. Age-related changes in tooth dimensions in adults in Shiraz, Iran. J Int Oral Health. 2020 Mar;12(7):S24-9.
35. Ghodoosy A, Ghafari R, Alizadeh N. Determination of sexual dimorphism from maxillary premolars thickness in bitewing radiography. J Dent. 2008 Sep;9(3):213-21.
36. Mackinejad SA, Kaviani R, Rakhshan V, Khabir F. Assessment of the cut-off point of mesiodistal and buccolingual widths of permanent teeth for determination of sex. J Isfahan Dent Sch. 2015;11(2):151-60.
37. Capitaneanu C, Willems G, Thevissen P. A systematic review of odontological sex estimation methods. J Forensic Odontostomatol. 2017 Dec;35(2):1-19.
38. Akkoç B, Arslan A, Kök H. Gray level co-occurrence and random forest algorithm-based gender determination with maxillary tooth plaster images. Comput Biol Med. 2016 Jun; 73:102-7.
39. Avuçlu E, Başçiftçi F. Novel approaches to determine age and gender from dental x-ray images by using multiplayer perceptron neural networks and image processing techniques. Chaos Solit. 2019 Mar;120:127-38.
40. Wei P, Lu Z, Song J. Variable importance analysis: a comprehensive review. Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf. 2015 Oct;142:399-432.
| Issue | Vol 22 (Continuously Published Article-Based) | |
| Section | Original Article | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/fid.v22i14.18470 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Radiography Panoramic Molar Maxilla Machine Learning Sex Characteristics Support Vector Machine Forensic Dentistry | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Talebi S, Fallahzadeh H, Jambarsang S, Ezoddini Ardakani F. Sex estimation based on tooth measurements using panoramic radiographs with classical and machine-learning classifiers. Front Dent. 2025;22.
